Module F-2·20 min read

require() vs import/export, how Node resolves modules, built-in core modules, and the circular dependency trap every beginner falls into.

Module F-2 — The Module System: CommonJS and ESM

Q: In a CommonJS module, why does the code `exports = { foo: 'bar' }` fail to properly export the object?

Because it reassigns the local `exports` variable to a new object, leaving the actual `module.exports` pointing to the original empty object. — Both `module.exports` and `exports` initially point to the same object. If you reassign the local variable `exports` to a completely new object, it simply breaks the reference. The `module.exports` object remains unchanged (an empty object), and that is what actually gets exported. Options A, C, and D represent incorrect understandings of CommonJS export mechanics.

Q: What is a key difference in how CommonJS and ES Modules handle module resolution and loading?

ES Modules support tree-shaking because they are statically analyzed at parse time, whereas CommonJS modules are resolved at runtime. — Because ES Modules use `import` and `export` statements that can be statically analyzed at parse time, tools like bundlers can eliminate unused code (tree-shaking). CommonJS uses `require()`, which is evaluated dynamically at runtime, making tree-shaking difficult or impossible. The other statements inverse the facts or misattribute features like `__dirname` which is available in CommonJS but not ESM.

Q: What happens when two CommonJS modules have a circular dependency?

To prevent infinite recursion, Node.js returns whatever the first module has exported *so far* (often an incomplete or empty object), resulting in `undefined` values. — In a CommonJS circular dependency, Node.js mitigates the infinite loop by returning the current state of the module's `exports` object at the moment it is required. Because the module hasn't finished executing, this often means returning an empty object, leading to expected properties being `undefined`. It does not crash with a stack overflow or automatically defer execution.

What this module covers: Every file you write in Node.js is a module. Understanding how modules work — how they import and export code, how Node.js finds the files you reference, and why two different systems (require and import) exist side by side — is foundational to everything else. This module explains CommonJS, ES Modules, the Node.js module resolution algorithm, the built-in core modules, and the circular dependency problem that catches every developer at least once.

Why Modules Exist

Imagine writing an entire application in a single file. At a hundred lines it's manageable. At a thousand it's painful. At ten thousand it's unmaintainable. You cannot test pieces of it in isolation. You cannot reuse logic across projects. Every variable is global and any part of the code can accidentally overwrite anything else.

Modules solve this by giving each file its own scope. Variables defined in utils.js don't exist in server.js unless utils.js explicitly exports them and server.js explicitly imports them. This is the entire point: controlled, explicit sharing of code between files.

Node.js has had two module systems across its history: CommonJS (the original, still widely used) and ES Modules (the modern standard, aligned with the browser). You will encounter both in the wild. You need to understand both.

CommonJS: The Original System

CommonJS was Node.js's module system from day one in 2009. It uses require() to load modules and module.exports (or exports) to expose code from a file.

Exporting from a file

javascript

// math.js
function add(a, b) {
  return a + b;
}

function multiply(a, b) {
  return a * b;
}

// Export an object containing both functions
module.exports = { add, multiply };

You can also export a single value:

javascript

// greet.js
module.exports = function greet(name) {
  return `Hello, ${name}!`;
};

Or add to exports incrementally:

javascript

// utils.js
exports.formatDate = function(date) {
  return date.toISOString().split('T')[0];
};

exports.capitalize = function(str) {
  return str.charAt(0).toUpperCase() + str.slice(1);
};

Importing with require()

javascript

// app.js
const math = require('./math');           // loads math.js
const greet = require('./greet');         // loads greet.js
const { formatDate } = require('./utils'); // destructure what you need

console.log(math.add(2, 3));       // 5
console.log(greet('Jatin'));        // Hello, Jatin!
console.log(formatDate(new Date())); // 2026-05-21

A few things to notice:

The path './math' is relative to the current file. The ./ means "same directory". Without it, Node.js looks in node_modules (covered shortly).
The .js extension is optional — require('./math') and require('./math.js') are equivalent.
require() is synchronous — it blocks until the file is fully loaded and executed. This is fine at startup but you should never call require() inside a hot code path (inside a function that runs on every request).

The module.exports vs exports distinction

This trips up beginners frequently. Both module.exports and exports start out pointing to the same object. But if you reassign module.exports, you replace the export entirely:

javascript

// This works — adding properties to the shared object
exports.foo = 'bar';

// This also works — replacing module.exports entirely
module.exports = { foo: 'bar' };

// This BREAKS — you reassign exports but module.exports still points to {}
exports = { foo: 'bar' }; // ❌ This is a local variable reassignment

Rule of thumb: Use module.exports = ... when you want to export a single thing (a function, a class, an object). Use exports.name = ... when you want to add properties incrementally. Never reassign exports directly.

ES Modules: The Modern Standard

ES Modules (ESM) were standardised in ES2015 and added to Node.js in v12. They use import and export syntax and are the module system used in browsers, Deno, and all modern JavaScript tooling.

Exporting from a file

javascript

// math.mjs  (or math.js with "type": "module" in package.json)

export function add(a, b) {
  return a + b;
}

export function multiply(a, b) {
  return a * b;
}

// A default export — one per file
export default function divide(a, b) {
  return a / b;
}

Importing

javascript

// app.mjs
import { add, multiply } from './math.mjs';
import divide from './math.mjs';  // imports the default export

console.log(add(2, 3));      // 5
console.log(divide(10, 2));  // 5

You can also import everything under a namespace:

javascript

import * as math from './math.mjs';
console.log(math.add(2, 3));  // 5

Key differences from CommonJS

Feature	CommonJS	ES Modules
Syntax	`require()` / `module.exports`	`import` / `export`
Execution	Synchronous	Asynchronous (allows top-level `await`)
When resolved	Runtime	Parse time (static analysis possible)
Default export	`module.exports = value`	`export default value`
Tree-shaking	❌ Not possible	✅ Bundlers can eliminate unused exports
`__dirname`	✅ Available	❌ Use `import.meta.url` instead
Top-level `await`	❌	✅

How Node.js Knows Which System to Use

This is where confusion often comes from. Node.js decides whether a file is CommonJS or ESM based on two things:

1. File extension:

.cjs → always CommonJS
.mjs → always ES Modules
.js → depends on the package.json

2. The "type" field in package.json:

"type": "module" → all .js files in this package are ESM
"type": "commonjs" (or no "type" field) → all .js files are CommonJS

json

// package.json — makes all .js files in this project use ESM
{
  "name": "my-project",
  "type": "module",
  "version": "1.0.0"
}

Practical guidance for new projects in 2026:

Most modern projects use "type": "module" and write ESM (import/export). But a huge portion of the npm ecosystem — especially older packages — is CommonJS. You will regularly need to understand both. When you npm install a package and it uses require() internally, that's fine even in an ESM project; Node.js handles the interop.

If you are joining an existing project, look at the package.json first to understand which system it uses. If there is no "type" field, it's CommonJS.

The Module Resolution Algorithm

When you write require('./utils') or import { foo } from './utils', how does Node.js find the actual file? The algorithm is straightforward:

For relative paths (`./`, `../`)

Try the exact path: ./utils
Try with .js: ./utils.js
Try with .json: ./utils.json
Try with .node (native addon): ./utils.node
Try as a directory: look for ./utils/index.js, ./utils/index.json

For bare specifiers (no `./` prefix)

javascript

require('express')  // bare specifier — looks in node_modules

Look in node_modules/express/ in the current directory
Look in node_modules/express/ in the parent directory
Keep going up the directory tree until the filesystem root
Throw Cannot find module 'express' if not found anywhere

This means if you accidentally name a file express.js in your project root, it will shadow the express package from node_modules. Don't do that.

Why this matters

Understanding resolution saves you from mysterious errors:

Error: Cannot find module './utils'

This means Node.js looked in the right places and found nothing. Check:

Is the path relative (./) or did you forget the ./?
Is the filename spelled correctly (case matters on Linux)?
Does the file actually exist?
Are you in the right directory when running node?

Built-in Core Modules

Node.js ships with a standard library of built-in modules. You load them just like any other module — but since they are built into the Node.js binary, there is no file to find and no npm install needed.

You can prefix them with node: to make it explicit that it's a built-in (recommended in modern code):

javascript

const fs = require('node:fs');
const path = require('node:path');
const http = require('node:http');
const crypto = require('node:crypto');
const os = require('node:os');

The most commonly used built-in modules:

Module	Purpose
`fs`	File system — read, write, watch files and directories
`path`	File path manipulation — join, resolve, parse
`http` / `https`	Create HTTP/HTTPS servers and make requests
`crypto`	Hashing, encryption, random bytes
`os`	OS info — CPUs, memory, hostname, home directory
`process`	Process info, env vars, stdin/stdout, exit
`events`	The EventEmitter class (covered in F-9)
`stream`	Readable, Writable, Transform streams
`buffer`	Binary data handling
`util`	Utility functions: `promisify`, `inspect`, `format`
`url`	URL parsing and construction
`child_process`	Spawn and communicate with child processes

You do not need to memorise all of these. You will learn them as you need them. The key ones for early development are fs, path, and http.

Circular Dependencies

A circular dependency happens when module A imports module B, and module B imports module A. Node.js handles this without crashing — but the result may not be what you expect.

javascript

// a.js
const b = require('./b');
console.log('a.js: b.value =', b.value);
exports.value = 'A';

// b.js
const a = require('./a');
console.log('b.js: a.value =', a.value);
exports.value = 'B';

// main.js
require('./a');

Running node main.js produces:

text

b.js: a.value = undefined
a.js: b.value = B

Why undefined? When a.js starts executing and hits require('./b'), Node.js starts loading b.js. b.js then does require('./a') — but a.js is already being loaded. To prevent infinite recursion, Node.js returns whatever a.js has exported so far. Since a.js hasn't finished executing yet, exports.value hasn't been set. b.js gets an empty object.

The fix: restructure your code to remove the cycle. Usually this means:

Extract shared code into a third module that both A and B import — but which imports neither.
Delay the require: put require('./b') inside a function that runs after initialisation, not at the top level.
Rethink the architecture: circular dependencies often indicate that two modules are too tightly coupled and should be combined or restructured.

ESM has stricter behaviour with circular dependencies — you will get a ReferenceError at runtime for the values that haven't been initialised yet, making the problem harder to ignore but easier to diagnose.

Practical rule: if you see undefined where you expected an exported value, and both files import each other, you have a circular dependency. Move the shared code out.

Quick Reference

javascript

// CommonJS — most compatible, default for packages without "type": "module"
const fs = require('node:fs');
const { add } = require('./math');
module.exports = { myFunction };

// ES Modules — modern, use with "type": "module" in package.json
import fs from 'node:fs';
import { add } from './math.js';  // extension required in ESM
export function myFunction() { }
export default myFunction;

// Dynamic import — works in both systems, returns a Promise
const module = await import('./heavy-module.js');

Summary

CommonJS uses require() and module.exports. It is synchronous, runs at runtime, and is still the default for packages without a "type" field.
ES Modules use import/export. They are static (resolved at parse time), support top-level await, and enable tree-shaking. They are the modern standard.
Which to use: set "type": "module" in package.json for new projects and write ESM. You will still encounter CommonJS in dependencies — that's fine.
Resolution order: exact path → .js → .json → index.js for relative paths. Walk up node_modules/ directories for bare specifiers.
Core modules are built into Node.js. Prefix with node: for clarity. No installation required.
Circular dependencies produce confusing undefined values. The fix is to extract shared code into a third module, not to work around the symptom.

Next: working with the file system, environment variables, and paths — the three things you reach for in almost every Node.js script.

The ESM/CJS Interop Reality — The Dependency Upgrade Trap

The Node.js ecosystem has been migrating from CommonJS to ESM since 2020. In 2025, a significant portion of popular packages are ESM-only. If your project is CommonJS, you will hit this wall when upgrading dependencies.

Which Packages Went ESM-Only

chalk >= v5 — terminal colors (most projects use this)
node-fetch >= v3 — HTTP client (superseded by native fetch, but legacy code uses it)
got >= v12 — HTTP client
nanoid >= v4 — ID generation
ora >= v6 — terminal spinners
execa >= v6 — child processes
p-limit >= v4 — concurrency limiting

The error when you require() an ESM-only package:

text

Error [ERR_REQUIRE_ESM]: require() of ES Module /path/to/node_modules/chalk/source/index.js 
from /path/to/your/file.js not supported.
Instead change the require of /path/to/node_modules/chalk/source/index.js to a dynamic 
import() which is available in all CommonJS modules.

The `"type": "module"` Field

Adding "type": "module" to package.json makes ALL .js files in the package treated as ESM. Without it, .js files are CJS.

The file extension overrides:

.mjs — always ESM, regardless of "type" field
.cjs — always CJS, regardless of "type" field
.js — follows "type" field (default: CJS)

Dynamic `import()` — The CJS Escape Hatch

CJS can import ESM using dynamic import():

javascript

// CJS file — can use dynamic import() for ESM-only packages
const { default: chalk } = await import('chalk')  
console.log(chalk.blue('Hello'))

The limitation: import() is async. You cannot use it at the top of a CJS module synchronously. Wrap it in an async function or move it to a place where async is acceptable (inside request handlers, not at module initialization).

javascript

// Pattern: lazy import with caching
let _chalk = null
async function getChalk() {
  if (!_chalk) _chalk = (await import('chalk')).default
  return _chalk
}

app.get('/test', async (req, res) => {
  const chalk = await getChalk()
  console.log(chalk.green('Request received'))
  res.json({ ok: true })
})

The Dual Package Hazard

Some packages publish both CJS and ESM versions. When CJS and ESM code both import such a package, you can end up with two separate instances of the package in memory — one per module system. This breaks singletons (the same "instance" behaves differently from two code paths).

Detection: if a package's state (config, connection pool, event emitter) set from CJS code is invisible to ESM code, you have the dual package hazard.

Resolution: commit fully to one module system. For new projects: ESM. For legacy CJS projects: pin packages to their last CJS-compatible version until you're ready to migrate.

TypeScript moduleResolution

TypeScript's moduleResolution setting controls how it resolves imports:

Setting	Node.js version	Package.json `exports`	Use when
`"node"`	Any	Ignored	Legacy projects
`"node16"`	Node 16+	Respected	CJS with occasional ESM
`"nodenext"`	Node 16+	Respected	Full ESM
`"bundler"`	Bundler	Respected	Vite, webpack, Next.js

The wrong moduleResolution causes TypeScript to resolve imports correctly at compile time but Node.js to fail at runtime with ERR_REQUIRE_ESM. Use "moduleResolution": "node16" or "bundler" for modern Node.js projects.

The Migration Path for Existing CJS Projects

Audit dependencies: npx are-the-types-wrong checks for ESM/CJS type mismatches in your installed packages
Identify ESM-only blockers: grep -r "ERR_REQUIRE_ESM" node_modules/.pnpm-debug.log after a test failure
Pin or downgrade ESM-only packages to their last CJS version temporarily (chalk@4, node-fetch@2)
Migrate file by file to .mjs or add "type": "module" to package.json when ready
Update TypeScript config — change moduleResolution after migration

Knowledge Check

In a CommonJS module, why does the code exports = { foo: 'bar' } fail to properly export the object?

What is a key difference in how CommonJS and ES Modules handle module resolution and loading?

What happens when two CommonJS modules have a circular dependency?

Test your knowledge with more question sets

PreviousModule F-1: What Is Node.js and Why Does It Exist?Next Module F-3: Working with Files, Paths, and the Environment

Discussion

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Module F-2 — The Module System: CommonJS and ESM

Why Modules Exist

CommonJS: The Original System

Exporting from a file

Importing with require()

The module.exports vs exports distinction

ES Modules: The Modern Standard

Exporting from a file

Importing

Key differences from CommonJS

How Node.js Knows Which System to Use

The Module Resolution Algorithm

For relative paths (./, ../)

For bare specifiers (no ./ prefix)

Why this matters

Built-in Core Modules

Circular Dependencies

Quick Reference

Summary

The ESM/CJS Interop Reality — The Dependency Upgrade Trap

Which Packages Went ESM-Only

The "type": "module" Field

Dynamic import() — The CJS Escape Hatch

The Dual Package Hazard

TypeScript moduleResolution

The Migration Path for Existing CJS Projects

Test your knowledge with more question sets

Discussion

For relative paths (`./`, `../`)

For bare specifiers (no `./` prefix)

The `"type": "module"` Field

Dynamic `import()` — The CJS Escape Hatch